devens

SUMMARY

This study suggests that students who attend international schools have lower depression rates than those who do not have third culture experiences.

This paper (and other research) suggests "female adolescents perceive significantly more support from friends", therefore "a sense of cohesiveness and connectedness to peers may be difficult for Third Culture Kid (TCK) females who transition to several different environments throughout the course of their teen years."

The study also shows that "the total number of schools attended by both male and female had a statistically significant influence on the scores."

"Researchers have noted that teenagers who are highly mobile have been identified as potential risks for depression..."

Depression rates among
international students:
A research study
By JEFF DEVENS

It is estimated that depression affects the lives of some two million children worldwide. Depression among children can manifest itself in a number of ways, from the doldrums to severe debilitating periods marked by excessive grief, sadness and even a desire to end one's life. Twenty to thirty-five percent of boys and 25-40% of girls have been identified as having experienced depressed moods. Considerable progress has been made in understanding underlying factors associated with childhood depression in the past two decades; however, it remains difficult to precisely determine prevalence rates; this is particularly true among international students because no research to date has been undertaken.

More than 300,000 American students are presently living overseas and attending international schools, of which 100,000 will transit back to the United States. The international experiences of these children often involve different countries. High mobility and trans-cultural experiences are the most salient features among such children. Commonly called Third Culture Kids (TCKs), these children may experience difficulties related to identity and identity development as they attempt to assimilate the cultural forms and norms of their own and parent's culture, while simultaneously assimilating cultural characteristics and norms of the host countries and international schools. The result is often a period of confusion and frustration, manifesting itself in academic, social, and emotional adjustments, including depression.

        The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of cross-cultural experiences on affective mood states among Third Culture Kids, ages 11-14, attending an international school. Using a 20-item inventory, known as the Beck Depression Inventory-Youth (BDI-Y), and demographic information collected from participants, the study analyzed factors that might affect depression scores. Three hundred seventy-five students participated in the research.

        Eighty percent of the students' scores were in the average range. These findings suggest that students who attend international schools have lower depression rates than those who do not have Third Culture experiences; however, a note of caution is in order when interpreting these findings as no previous studies using the BDI-Y have been undertaken among other TCK populations for comparative purposes. Females did have statistically significant higher scores compared to males in the sample by nearly two points. In addition, both male and female participants had statistically significant higher scores with each additional school attended.

Gender and Social Adjustments
Erik Erikson (1968) postulated that social development occurs in a series of stages. Each stage is marked by a particular psychosocial crisis or turning point. Whether these crises are resolved satisfactorily depends to a considerable degree on the quality of the individual's psychosocial experiences. Positive resolution of each crisis contributes to a progressive strengthening of self concept, whereas negative resolution results in its weakening. Beginning around age 13, individuals who have adequately resolved the conflicts in the prior stages bring into adolescence a growing sense of self-identity. Identity is a multifaceted concept. At base, it refers to a conscious sense of direction and uniqueness. Those who fail to attain a healthy sense of identity during this period may develop a sense of role confusion leading to stress, low self-esteem and depression.

Researchers also suggest that social stresses associated with developmental transitions during adolescence are related to increased rates of depression among females and that popularity and sexuality are a major focus; male relationships during this same period do not change to such a degree. Given the transitional experiences that are commonplace among Third Culture Kids, perhaps these social adjustments more adversely affect female than male TCKs, resulting in higher rates of depression.

Researchers note the importance for female adolescents to have a sense of connectedness to other females and particularly those who are popular. These findings are supported by additional studies, which found that female adolescents perceive significantly more support from friends, while males perceive significantly more support from their parents and teachers. A sense of cohesiveness and connectedness to peers may be difficult for TCK females who transition to several different environments throughout the course of their teen years. These researchers note that adolescent females often attribute their feelings of worthlessness to other people in their social environments who make them feel inadequate.

Depression and Total Schools Attended
In addition to statistically significant differences in BDI-Y scores based on gender, the total number of schools attended by both males and females had a statistically significant influence on the scores. Each additional school resulted in an increase of nearly one point. The average number of schools attended by students in the sample was 3.5. The moves to other schools often involve moves to other countries as well. Indeed, the average number of countries lived the past three years by participants in this study was 3.5.

Third Culture research by Pollock and VanReken (2001) notes that the two major challenges that TCKs face as a result of this high mobility are: developing a sense of identity in the face of rootlessness and resolving the grief from disrupted relationships. Researchers have noted that teenagers who are highly mobile have been identified as potential risks for depression and suicide. With high levels of mobility common at such a critical period of development as adolescence, it is not surprising that significant findings were noted based on the variable "total schools attended."

        As TCK populations continue to increase, primarily due to globalization, greater understanding and awareness of variables that may impact social and emotional development are needed. This study identified two variables that are associated with higher levels of depression among Third Culture populations: that female TCK's have significantly higher rates of depression when compared to males and that each additional school significantly increases BDI-Y scores for both males and females.

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For additional information regarding this research, please contact:

Jeff Devens
jdevens_AT_sas.edu.sg

To reduce spam please remove _AT_ and replace with standard ampersand or @ email character.)

Jeff is completing his Ph.D. in School Psychology, and this dissertation research is part of the degree program.

He is working as an intern school psychologist under the supervision of Dr. David Putnam and William Hanagan as well as teaching in the high school. (SAS)

David's note:
Jeff gained his Phd in 2006.
Congratulations Jeff !

Depression rates among
international students:
A research study by
Jeff Devens

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